Yes, they did many positive things, especially in regards to modernization and the rights of women, but the last Shah was also a dictator who had his political enemies thrown in prison, tortured, and even executed. [156][157], Some sources (such as Emadeddin Baghi, a researcher at the Martyrs Foundation) claim 2,781 protesters and revolutionaries were killed in 197879 during the Revolution. [2], The Cultural Council continues ensuring that the education and culture of Iran remain "100% Islamic", per Khomeini's mandate. Operation Ajax was born, in which the only democratic government Iran ever had was deposed. [17] While the revolution achieved its goal of ridding the universities of Western influence, it also greatly weakened Iran in the fields of science and technology needed for development. Education was encouraged for the entire population. [111], On 2 December 1978, the Muharram protests began. [109][143] Nevertheless, Huyser won out and continued to work with both the military and opposition. [1] Hojjatol-Islam Mohammad Khatami was appointed as a member of the High Council for Cultural Revolution[21] in 1996[22][citation needed] and became its head in 1997. Reza Pahlavi currently lives with his wife and three daughters in Washington, D.C. Many people were killed by government forces in anti-regime protests, serving only to fuel the violence in a Shii country where martyrdom played a fundamental role in religious expression. Much is needed to improve Iran and transition them into a stable and democratic country. The Islamic Republic imposes strict rules on Iranian life. [117][139], Increasing contact was established with the pro-Khomeini camp. [241], In January 1980, Abolhassan Banisadr was elected president of Iran. One student was reportedly lynched, and according to a British correspondent, the campus was left looking like an `a combat zone.` The next day, Hezbollahis ransacked left-wing student offices at Shiraz University. [122][109] Martial law was declared in the city on 11 August as symbols of Western culture and government buildings were burned, and a bus full of American workers was bombed. [14], By summer, the protests had stagnated, remaining at a steady rate for four months, with about 10,000 participants in each major citywith the exception of Isfahan, where protests were larger, and Tehran, where they were smallerprotesting every 40 days. "Reading Lolita in Tehran." [329], It is said that there were attempts to incorporate modern political and social concepts into Islamic canon since 1950. Pre-Revolution Before 1979 Iran: An Overview Iran: World War I & World War II 1953 Coup & Shah of Iran Explore exciting information about the 1953 Coup, Shah of Iran, U.S. involvement and events leading to the 1979 Revolution. It is rare for a revolution to involve as much as 1 percent of a country's population; the French, Russian, and Romanian revolutions may have passed the 1 percent mark. Some left easily with their families on vacations, but others had to leave on foot through mountains hoping to survive the journey to safety, praying to be reunited with their families one day. Thousands of komiteh or Revolutionary Committees[205] served as "the eyes and ears" of the new rule and are credited by critics with "many arbitrary arrests, executions and confiscations of property". It is sickening to see and it wouldve been really exciting to see another Middle Eastern nation prevail and develop into a functional state. [137] Even in his years in exile, Khomeini remained relevant in Iran. New York: Random House, 2003. Sign up to receive ShareAmerica updates. The Shiraz-Persepolis summer arts festival was established, showcasing music, dance, drama, poetry and film from Iran and elsewhere. Be self-dependent and do not expect any help from the foreigners. They were based in the urban middle class, and wanted the Shah to adhere to the Iranian Constitution of 1906 rather than to replace him with a theocracy,[77] but lacked the cohesion and organization of Khomeini's forces.[78]. The shah, weakened by cancer and stunned by the sudden outpouring of hostility against him, vacillated between concession and repression, assuming the protests to be part of an international conspiracy against him. The Cultural Council has 41 members,[28][citation needed] most of whom hold other government posts as well. The 1971 2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire at Persepolis, organized by the government, was attacked for its extravagance. A subsequent memorial service for Mostafa in Tehran put Khomeini back in the spotlight. [9][19][101] After the firing of warning shots failed to disperse the crowd, troops fired directly into the mob, killing 64,[109] while General Oveissi claimed that 30 soldiers were killed by armed snipers in surrounding buildings. [11][12] The headquarters deleted certain courses such as music as "fake knowledge," and committees "came to similar conclusions concerning all subjects in the humanities such as law, political sciences, economy, psychology, education and sociology". [109], At midnight on 8 September, the Shah declared martial law in Tehran and 11 other major cities throughout the country. Pre-Revolution Society in Iran Report galcec Apr. The land reform, instead of allying the peasants with the government, produced large numbers of independent farmers and landless laborers who became loose political cannons, with no feeling of loyalty to the Shah. These revolts began in April 1979 and lasted between several months to over a year, depending on the region. "[199], The Revolutionary Guard, or Pasdaran-e Enqelab, was established by Khomeini on 5 May 1979, as a counterweight both to the armed groups of the left, and to the Shah's military. [167], The Iranian Revolution was a gendered revolution; much of the new regime's rhetoric was centered on the position of women in Iranian society. This alarmed many of Iran's neighbours, particularly Kuwait, Iraq and Saudi Arabia as well as Western nations dependent on Middle Eastern oil for their energy needs. The Cultural Revolution (19801983; Persian: : Enqelbe Farhangi) was a period following the Iranian Revolution, when the academia of Iran was purged of Western and non-Islamic influences (including traditionalist unpolitical Islamic doctrines) to align them with the revolutionary and political Islam. This has united our people. Although these bodies are subordinate to theocracy which has veto power over who can run for parliament (or Islamic Consultative Assembly) and whether its bills can become law they have more power than equivalent organs in the Shah's government. This also tied the monarchy to the West, which had begun to be regarded in reactionary Islamic discourse as immoral due to "female nudity and open adult male homosexuality.". ", Another aspect was that many teachers, engineers, economists, doctors, and technocrats left Iran to escape the Cultural Revolution. People accompanying Khomeini from Mehrabad to Behesht Zahra. While the crisis was quickly defused by the Pakistan military, the next day, before some 120 Pakistani army officers stationed in Iran on the road to hajj, Khomeini said "it is a cause of joy that all Pakistan has risen against the United States" and the struggle is not that of the US and Iran but "the entire world of disbelief and the world of Islam". He produced a number of writings in Islamic philosophy, law, and ethics, but what made him best known among the people of Iran was his opposition to Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi and everything he was doing. [178] Many Western educated upper-middle-class women from secular, urban and professional families were involved as well as many women from working-class and rural backgrounds. But in little more than a generation, Iran had changed from a traditional, conservative, and rural society to one that was industrial, modern, and urban. The reviewer, Philip Kennicott, called Iran a vibrant and artistically rich society. There was even gender segregation on public transportation on which there were fewer seats even available for women. This period, from 1 to 11 February, is celebrated every year in Iran as the "Decade of Fajr. How could Islam be a religion of peace and the claims made towards it when it degrades the state of a society? [56] Most Iranians lived in poverty while the wealth generated from Iranian oil played a decisive role in maintaining Britain at the top of the world. The Shah's reforms more than quadrupled the combined size of the two classes that had posed the most challenges to his monarchy in the pastthe intelligentsia and the urban working class. [111], However, the government still continued the policy of appeasement and negotiation. There the two signed an agreement for a draft constitution that would be "Islamic and democratic". [263] Relations with the USSR became strained as well after the Soviet government condemned Khomeini's repression of certain minorities after the Revolution. All Iranians want change, it is time for change. Here are photos of Iranian society prior to the 1979 revolution. $18,544 in 2016. On April 18, 1980, after Friday prayers, Khomeini gave a speech harshly attacking the universities. Mosaddegh was unmoved by Britain's campaign against him. [24][citation needed] Many students have been harassed and occasionally incarcerated for writing against or speaking against the government and its policies. It is much more than just the veil, but its about the freedom of expression, which can come in many forms; be it from deciding to indulge in listening to the Beatles, to even the decision to play a game of UNO. [113][116], Iran's security forces had not received any riot-control training nor equipment since 1963. Learn More Women In Iran Learn about women in Iran before and after 1979 Learn More Iranian Culture "[174] He also said that, "women from all levels of society took part in the recent demonstrations, which we are calling the 'referendum of the streets' women fought side by side with men in the struggle for their independence and their liberty. We are not afraid of economic sanctions or military intervention. For the first time in more than half a century, the secular intellectualsmany of whom were fascinated by the populist appeal of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, a former professor of philosophy in Qom who had been exiled in 1964 after speaking out harshly against the shahs recent reform programabandoned their aim of reducing the authority and power of the Shii ulama (religious scholars) and argued that, with the help of the ulama, the shah could be overthrown. The attempt was a reaction to the secular political discourse namely Marxism, liberalism and nationalism. Its disturbing that people in modern times have such difficulty understanding that a child is eight years old shouldnt Noway be involved in a marriage. Prime Minister of the Interim Government. [8][9][10] In August 1978, the deaths of between 377 and 470 people in the Cinema Rex fire claimed by the opposition as having been orchestrated by Pahlavi's SAVAK came to serve as a catalyst for a popular revolutionary movement across all of Iran,[11][12] and large-scale strikes and demonstrations paralyzed the entire country for the remainder of that year. Secretary of State Cyrus Vance rejected a military crackdown;[109] he and his supporters believed in the "moderate and progressive" intentions of Khomeini and his circle. He retained Sharif-Emami's civilian government, hoping that protesters would avoid taking the streets. The first time I had ever been informed about the Iranian people, under a spotlight that wasnt exclusive to US military action against terrorism, was from the book Persepolis. Khomeini returned from exile that February and replaced the secular government with a theocracy ruled by Islamic religious leaders. [51] Police forcibly removed and tore chadors off women who resisted his ban on the public hijab. This had the unexpected result of exposing many students in Qom to Western thought so that it is possible to find "Islamic scholars and teachers of theology who know something of contemporary Western thought and philosophy. [165] Before the revolution was consolidated, these chants were made by various political supporters, and were often recorded on cassette tapes in underground and home studios. Current Iranian leader, Ali Khamenei in a Revolutionary protest in Mashhad. [248] Those attending the rally were menaced by Hezbollahi and Revolutionary Guards and intimidated into silence.[249]. "[307], Throughout the beginning of the 20th century and prior to the revolution, many women leaders emerged and demanded basic social rights for women. In Iran there was an immediate outcry, and both Khomeini and leftist groups demanded the Shah's return to Iran for trial and execution. The Family Protection Act gave them greater rights such as allowing divorce and banning marriage under the age of 15. With how things are in the country right now, there may be another revolution arising. At the same time, support for the Shah may have waned among Western politicians and mediaespecially under the administration of U.S. President Jimmy Carteras a result of the Shah's support for OPEC petroleum price increases earlier in the decade. The revolution dried all the blossoms of the so-called "Persian rose and nightingale" culture. [10], After shutting down the universities on 12 June 1980,[11] Khomeini issued a letter, stating:[citation needed]. [6][20][101][116], On 6 November, the Shah dismissed Sharif-Emami from the post of prime minister, and chose to appoint a military government in its place. What the Shah did not expect, however, was that the White Revolution led to new social tensions that helped create many of the problems the Shah had been trying to avoid. [248] Leaders of the Freedom Movement of Iran were compelled to make and publicly broadcast apologies for supporting the Front's appeal. Iranians enjoyed the luxury of new colleges, universities and libraries under the shah. Angered, Bakhtiar made a speech of his own. Most of us think that Iranian pre-Islamic culture and literature was totally destroyed with the invasion of the Arabs and a new culture, separate from that of the past developed under the influence of Islamic culture. [174] Members of the Women's Organization of Iran marched in support for the revolution and it was important that women very much linked to the government also turned against the Shah's regime. [46], At the end of the 19th century, the Shi'a clergy (ulama) had a significant influence on Iranian society. But the Shah's increasingly authoritarian measures and his eventual dismissal of multiparty rule set the stage for the infamous revolution. [16], The Cultural Revolution united the theological schools in Qom with state universities and brought secular teachers to Qom for a time. Sextus Empiricus asserts in his Outlines of Scepticism (written circa C.E. [239] Riots broke out in Shariatmadari's Azeri home region with members of the MPRP and Shariatmadari's followers seizing the Tabriz television station and using it to "broadcast demands and grievances." Fearing further mutinies, many soldiers were returned to their barracks. The crackdown on communists and Islamists led to many being imprisoned and tortured. [6][14][116], Khomeini condemned the military government and called for continued protests. Ruhollah Khomeini, the leader of the Iranian Revolution, was the grandson and son of Shiite religious leaders. This dimension of the ceremonies went beyond the religious credentials of the family. If you want to use our website, please turn off AdBlock. [115] In addition, it was the Islamic holy month of Ramadan, bringing a sense of increased religiosity among many people.[109]. On February 11, 1979, the Islamic Revolution swept the country. The British embassy in Tehran was partially burned and vandalized as well, and the American embassy nearly suffered the same fate. [168] Beyond rhetoric, thousands of women were also heavily mobilized in the revolution itself,[169] and different groups of women actively participated alongside their male counterparts. The students held 52 American diplomats hostage for 444 days, which played a role in helping to pass the constitution, suppressing moderates, and otherwise radicalising the revolution. [2], Since 2001, the Council has frequently called for or demanded either outright state control or governmental filtering of the internet to prevent the dissemination of blasphemy, insults to Iran's Supreme Leader, opposition to the Constitution, the creation of "pessimism and hopelessness among the people regarding the legitimacy and effectiveness of the [Islamic] system", and similar offensive content. By summer 1978, the working class joined the street protests in massive numbers. Prelude to revolution Reza Shah Pahlavi "[180] Women engaged with news and media as well as political discussions alongside their male counterparts as "the revolution was the only topic of interest to anyone, regardless of age or sex. [139], The telegram touched off a vigorous debate in the American cabinet, with some, such as National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski,[139] rejecting it outright. "[81] The most powerful guerrilla groupthe People's Mujahedinwas leftist Islamist and opposed the influence of the clergy as reactionary. Report for Selected Countries and Subjects", "GNI per capita (constant 2010 US$) | Data", "GNI per capita, PPP (constant 2011 international $) | Data", "Iran Currency Exchange Rate History: 1975 2018", "Regional Economic Outlook Middle East and Central Asia", "Khomeini's Face is in the Moon: Limitations of Sacredness and the Origins of Sovereignty", "Iran: Revolutionary Fundamentalism in Power", "Iran after the victory of 1979's Revolution,", The Islamic revolution: 30 years on, its legacy still looms large, The Seductions of Islamism, Revisiting Foucault and the Islamic Revolution, "The Religious Background of the 1979 Revolution in Iran", Class Analysis of the Islamic Revolution of 1979, History of Undefeated, A few words in commemoration of the 1979 Revolution, Revolution and Counter-revolution in Iran, Slideshow with audio commentary of the legacy of Islamic revolution after 30 years, Pictures of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini after the revolution, Shah and wife in Morocco, NIGHT AFTER THE REVOLUTION English Version, 1949 Iranian Constituent Assembly election, 2009 Iranian presidential election protests, International military intervention against the Islamic State (2014), Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (2015), 20182019 Iranian general strikes and protests, Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Islamic Consultative Assembly (parliament), Industrial Development and Renovation Organization (IDRO), Iran Aviation Industries Organization (IAIO), Iranian protests against compulsory hijab, Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752 protests, 19471948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine, Incapacitation of the Allied Control Council, On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences, North Yemen-South Yemen Border conflict of 1972, Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union, 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States, American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation, United States involvement in regime change, Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War, International propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism, Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam, Islamic Government: Governance of the Jurist (Velayat-e faqih), 2016 attack on the Saudi diplomatic missions in Iran, International Maritime Security Construct, United Nations Security Council Resolution 2231, Opposition to military action against Iran, Islamic Military Counter Terrorism Coalition, Turkey and the IranSaudi Arabia proxy conflict, Category:IranSaudi Arabia proxy conflict, 1992 attack on Israeli embassy in Buenos Aires, Assassination of Iranian nuclear scientists, Russia and the IranIsrael proxy conflict, Ambassadors of Iran to the United Kingdom, Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Iran, Nationalization of the Iranian oil industry, 2004 Iranian seizure of Royal Navy personnel, 2007 Iranian arrest of Royal Navy personnel, 2011 attack on the British Embassy in Iran, Interests Section of Iran in the United States, Consulate-General of the United States, Tabriz, Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations and Consular Rights, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's letter to George W. 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Navy personnel were also used as strikebreakers in the oil industry. [109][111][116] The BBC itself later issued a statement admitting to having a "critical" disposition to the Shah, saying that its broadcasts helped to "change the collective perception of the population. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. Iran had immense oil wealth, a long border with the Soviet Union, and a nationalist prime minister. This amounted to a small minority of the more than 15million adults in Iran. Tehran's martial law commander was General Gholam-Ali Oveissi, who was known for his severity against opponents. In 1952, Mosaddegh nationalized the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company and became a national hero. Rulers often dislike the US and their policies, it was cool to see how Pahlavi tried to change things for women, making them almost equal to men, they could divorce as well as had access to birth control. People celebrating Shah's exit from the country. The deaths shocked the country and damaged any attempt at reconciliation between the Shah and the opposition. Persians remained Persians. [166] "Iran Iran" or "Allah Allah" chants are famous revolutionary songs. Can a name become a metaphor for civil rights? Inevitably, the overlapping authority of the Revolutionary Council (which had the power to pass laws) and Bazargan's government was a source of conflict,[198] despite the fact that both had been approved by and/or put in place by Khomeini. This article was well written. Khomeini was released after eight months of house arrest and continued his agitation, condemning Iran's close cooperation with Israel and its capitulations, or extension of diplomatic immunity, to American government personnel in Iran. [61][62] Thus, the White Revolution in Iran was an attempt to introduce reform from above and preserve traditional power patterns. Iran's Sunni minority (about 8%) has seen some unrest. [139] As early as November, ambassador William Sullivan sent a telegram to Carter (the "Thinking the Unthinkable" telegram[139]). [109], The armed rebels attacked a weapons factory, capturing nearly 50,000 machine guns and distributing them to civilians who joined in the fighting. An injured revolutionary during protests against Pahlavi regime. [208] The results showed that 98.2% had voted in favor of the Islamic Republic. In January 1978, incensed by what they considered to be slanderous remarks made against Khomeini in Eelt, a Tehrn newspaper, thousands of young madrasah (religious school) students took to the streets. Ayatollah Khameneis responses the president & the chairman of SCCR to the questions posed by experts of public relation department of the SCCR in June 1985. Britain suspended all diplomatic relations with Iran and did not re-open their embassy in Tehran until 1988. People are tired of the way things are in the country and want less religion and more modernization. [9][101][109], The Shah was taken completely by surprise by the protests and,[9][20] to make matters worse, he often became indecisive during times of crisis;[6] virtually every major decision he would make backfired on his government and further inflamed the revolutionaries. [209] Leftists found the draft too conservative and in need of major changes but Khomeini declared it 'correct'. [114] The Carter administration in the US also refused to sell non-lethal tear gas and rubber bullets to Iran. Even then, the owner of the theater was arrested by the Shah's police for political difference and defiance. On 1 February 1979, Khomeini returned to Iran, following an invitation by the government;[6][14] several thousand Iranians gathered to greet him as he landed in the capital city of Tehran. [170] Not only participating through voting, women contributed to the revolution through marches, demonstrations and chanting slogans. At the same time, events that made up both the crisis and its resolution were the Iran hostage crisis, the invasion of Iran by Saddam Hussein's Iraq, and the presidency of Abolhassan Banisadr.[183][185]. The future of our country depends on your support. "[286] To honor the 40th anniversary of revolution around 50,000 prisoners were forgiven by order Ali Khamenei to receive "Islamic clemency". The resistance of Khomeiniist control at many universities was largely unsuccessful. Culture in Iran (Pre-Islamic Revolution) Group Use the following webpages to answer the questions about Iranian culture below. In reply Khomeini compared them as well as other adulterers to gangrene, thieves, and murderers. By mid-December, 1978, hundreds of thousands of people, led by religious leaders, came out in anti-government demonstrations. It is evident we are not. In negotiations with Ayatollah Shariatmadari, the Shah ordered the release of 120 political prisoners and Karim Sanjabi, and on 8 December revoked the ban on street demonstrations. [111], The speech backfired when the revolutionaries sensed weakness from the Shah and "smelled blood". Women with Mustaches and Men without Beards: Gender and Sexual Anxieties of Iranian Modernity. The British considered an armed invasion, but UK Prime Minister Winston Churchill decided on a coup after being refused American military support by U.S. President Harry S. Truman, who sympathized with nationalist movements like Mosaddegh's and had nothing but contempt for old-style imperialists like those who ran the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. [274], In Pakistan, it has been noted that the "press was largely favorable towards the new government"; the Islamist parties were even more enthusiastic; while the ruler, General Zia-ul-Haq, himself on an Islamization drive since he took power in 1977, talked of "simultaneous triumph of Islamic ideology in both our countries" and that "Khomeini is a symbol of Islamic insurgence." This voluminous work, reflects Iran's ancient history, its unique cultural values, its pre-Islamic Zoroastrian religion, and its sense of nationhood. In 2006, there were rumors of universities internally "bracing" for "tighter state control over student bodies and faculties and perhaps even the second Cultural Revolution.'" In early March 1979, Khomeini announced, "do not use this term, 'democratic.' [116][134] Khomeini announced that there would be no reconciliation with the Shah and called on all Iranians to overthrow him. Keep supporting great journalism by turning off your ad blocker. Although it is one thing in the USA that we believe in the freedom of religion we shouldnt judge this country either. Efforts toward satisfactory reform were continually stifled, however, amid reemerging social tensions as well as foreign intervention from Russia, the United Kingdom, and, later, the United States. [231][232] These dissidents were sentenced to death by the Islamic Revolutionary Courts during show trials in more than eighty-five cities across the country on charges of spreading "corruption on Earth" (ifsad-fi-alarz), "espionage", "terrorism", or "enmity against Allah" (Moharebeh). These personal accounts were valuable in a time where the official coverage of news was not trusted by many people. [42] Other factors include the underestimation of Khomeini's Islamist movement by both the Shah's reignwho considered them a minor threat compared to the Marxists and Islamic socialists[43][44][45]and by the secularist opponents of the governmentwho thought the Khomeinists could be sidelined. It led to the replacement of the Imperial State of Iran by the present-day Islamic Republic of Iran, as the monarchical government of Mohammed Reza Pahlavi was superseded by the theocratic government of Ruhollah Khomeini, a religious cleric who had headed one of the rebel factions. [9][6][111] By the beginning of November, many important officials in the Shah's government were demanding from the Shah forceful measures to bring the strikers back to work. [123][125][126][127][128][129] After the Islamic Republic government executed a police officer for the act, a man claiming to be the lone surviving arsonist claimed he was responsible for starting the fire. [142], Tensions between the two rival governments increased rapidly. Transparency International ranked Iran 136th out of 175 countries in transparency (i.e. Iranian Revolution, also called Islamic Revolution, Persian Enqelb-e Eslm, popular uprising in Iran in 1978-79 that resulted in the toppling of the monarchy on February 11, 1979, and led to the establishment of an Islamic republic. Whether youre studying times tables or applying to college, Classroom has the answers. 21, 2010 . [109] A few days later, even larger protests took place, and, for the first time, protesters called for Khomeini's return and the establishment of an Islamic republic. Written under a pseudonym by a government agent, it denounced Khomeini as a "British agent" and a "mad Indian poet" conspiring to sell out Iran to neo-colonialists and communists. [136], After the success of what would become known as a revolution, Ayatollah Khomeini returned to Iran as its religious and political leader for life. Khomeini attacked the MEK, referring to them as monafeqin (hypocrites) and kafer (unbelievers). Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. The American "Operation Ajax", orchestrated by the CIA, was aided by the British MI6 in organizing a military coup d'tat to oust Mossadegh. And suddenly nothing. Top editors give you the stories you want delivered right to your inbox each weekday. [176], The contributions of women to the revolutions and the intentions behind these contributions are complex and layered. Many Iranians were also angered by the fact that the Shah's family was the foremost beneficiary of the income generated by oil, and the line between state earnings and family earnings blurred. [6], Street demonstrations continued at full force with little response from the military; by late October, government officials effectively even ceded the University of Tehran to student protesters. However, he would avoid entering into political issues, as did other religious leaders who followed him. [20][101], On 5 November, demonstrations at University of Tehran became deadly after a fight broke out with armed soldiers. An attempt by Khomeini to forge a reconciliation between Banisadr and IRP leaders had failed,[246] and now it was Banisadr who was the rallying point "for all doubters and dissidents" of the theocracy, including the MEK. Fatalities were followed by demonstrations to commemorate the customary 40-day milestone of mourning in Shii tradition, and further casualties occurred at those protests, mortality and protest propelling one another forward. His royal duties would be carried out by a Regency Council, and three months after his departure a referendum would be submitted to the people deciding on whether Iran would remain a monarchy or become a republic. Protesters frequently went out at night, defying the set curfew, often taking to rooftops and shouting "Allahu-akbar" ('God is great'). [242], At the same time, erstwhile revolutionary allies of Khomeini the Islamist modernist guerrilla group People's Mujahedin of Iran (or MEK) were being suppressed by Khomeini's forces. [109], American General Robert Huyser, the Deputy Commander of NATO, entered Iran. On 20 March 1890, the long-standing Iranian monarch Nasir al-Din Shah granted a concession to British Major G. F. Talbot for a full monopoly over the production, sale, and export of tobacco for 50 years.

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